CSS 2025 – Comparative Study of Major Religions

Definition of Religion

Religion can be defined as a cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations that relates humanity to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements. However, there is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion.

Various definitions emphasize different aspects:

• Substantive definitions focus on the content or substance of religious belief, such as belief in gods or supernatural beings.
• Functional definitions focus on what religion does for the individual or society, such as providing meaning, social cohesion, or psychological comfort.
• Family resemblance approaches identify religion by a cluster of characteristics that are common to most religions.

Emergence of Religious Studies as a Discipline

The academic study of religion emerged in the 19th century as part of the broader development of the social sciences and humanities. Key developments include:

• Enlightenment influences that encouraged critical examination of religious traditions
• Comparative approaches that studied multiple religions side by side
• Phenomenology of religion that aimed to understand religious experiences on their own terms
• Institutionalization through university departments and academic journals

Pioneers in the field included Max Müller, who advocated the scientific study of religion, and William James, who explored the psychology of religious experience.

Theological vs. Academic Study of Religion

Life of Gautama Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha (“the awakened one”), was born in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal) around the 5th century BCE. Key events in his life include:

• Royal upbringing: Born to King Suddhodana and Queen Maya in the Shakya clan
• Four sights: Encounter with an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and an ascetic which revealed the reality of suffering
• Great Renunciation: Abandonment of royal life at age 29 to seek spiritual answers
• Enlightenment: Achievement of nirvana under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya after years of ascetic practices
• First sermon: Delivery of the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (Setting in Motion the Wheel of Dharma) at Sarnath
• Death: Attained parinirvana (final nirvana) at Kushinagar at age 80

Spread of Buddhism

Buddhism spread through various means and regions:

• Early spread in India: Through the missionary efforts of Buddha’s disciples and later patronage by Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE)
• Theravada Buddhism: Spread to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos)
• Mahayana Buddhism: Spread along Silk Road to Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam
• Vajrayana Buddhism: Developed in India and spread to Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia
• Modern spread: To Western countries through immigration and conversion in the 19th-21st centuries

Rivalry between Brahmanism and Buddhism

The relationship between Brahmanism (early Hinduism) and Buddhism was complex, involving both rivalry and mutual influence:

Despite these differences, there was also significant cross-fertilization of ideas, particularly in later developments of Hinduism that incorporated Buddhist concepts, and Mahayana Buddhism that adopted elements from Hindu thought.

(a) Karma Marga in Hinduism

Karma Marga, or the path of action, is one of the three main paths to spiritual liberation (moksha) in Hinduism, alongside Jnana Marga (path of knowledge) and Bhakti Marga (path of devotion).

Key aspects of Karma Marga include:

• Performance of duty: Fulfilling one’s svadharma (personal duty) according to one’s station in life
• Selfless action: Performing actions without attachment to results, as outlined in the Bhagavad Gita
• Purification: Right action helps purify the mind and reduce karmic bondage
• Social order: Supports the maintenance of dharma in society through performance of appropriate roles

(b) The Eightfold Path in Buddhism

The Noble Eightfold Path is the fourth of the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism and represents the practical guideline to end suffering and achieve enlightenment.

The eight components are grouped into three divisions:

Effective Study Strategies

Recommended Books

• “The World’s Religions” by Huston Smith – Comprehensive overview
• “Comparative Religion” by Alan G. Hefner – Detailed comparisons
• “A History of God” by Karen Armstrong – Historical development
• “The Sacred and The Profane” by Mircea Eliade – Nature of religious experience
• “Religions of the World” by Lewis M. Hopfe – Systematic approach